Why Do Elements in the Same Family Have Similar Properties

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• Topics
  • • Fundamentals
    • Ionic Bonding
    • Separating techniques
    • Central Reactions
    • Uncomplicated Molecules & Covalent Bonding
    • Alkanes & Crude Oil
  • • Calculations
    • Kinetics
    • Alkenes & Polymers
    • Metallic reactivity & Halogens
    • Moles
    • Energetics
    • Acids & Salts
    • Structure & Bonding
  • • Alcohols & Carboxylic Acids
    • Electrolysis
    • Condensation Polymers
    • Equilibria
    • Key Calculations
    • Specification experiments
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  • 1 Chemical science Principles
    • (a) States of matter
      • 1:01 sympathize the three states of thing in terms of the arrangement, movement and free energy of the particles
      • 1:02 sympathize the interconversions between the three states of matter in terms of: the names of the interconversions, how they are achieved and the changes in system, movement and energy of the particles
      • 1:03 empathise how the results of experiments involving the dilution of coloured solutions and diffusion of gases tin be explained
      • 1:04 know what is meant by the terms: solvent, solute, solution, saturated solution
      • i:05 (Triple simply) know what is meant past the term solubility in the units chiliad per 100g of solvent
      • 1:06 (Triple simply) understand how to plot and interpret solubility curves
      • 1:07 (Triple just) practical: investigate the solubility of a solid in h2o at a specific temperature
    • (b) Elements, compounds and mixtures
      • ane:08 empathize how to allocate a substance as an chemical element, a compound or a mixture
      • 1:09 empathise that a pure substance has a fixed melting and boiling point, but that a mixture may cook or boil over a range of temperatures
      • i:ten depict these experimental techniques for the separation of mixtures: simple distillation, fractional distillation, filtration, crystallisation, newspaper chromatography
      • 1:11 understand how a chromatogram provides data about the composition of a mixture
      • 1:12 empathise how to apply the calculation of Rf values to place the components of a mixture
      • 1:13 applied: investigate paper chromatography using inks/food colourings
    • (c) Atomic structure
      • i:14 know what is meant by the terms atom and molecule
      • one:15 know the structure of an atom in terms of the positions, relative masses and relative charges of sub-atomic particles
      • 1:16 know what is meant by the terms atomic number, mass number, isotopes and relative atomic mass (Aᵣ)
      • one:17 exist able to summate the relative diminutive mass of an chemical element (Aᵣ) from isotopic abundances
    • (d) The Periodic Table
      • i:eighteen empathize how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table: in order of diminutive number, in groups and periods
      • 1:19 sympathise how to deduce the electronic configurations of the commencement 20 elements from their positions in the Periodic Tabular array
      • 1:xx understand how to utilise electrical conductivity and the acrid-base character of oxides to allocate elements as metals or non-metals
      • 1:21 identify an element every bit a metal or a non-metallic according to its position in the Periodic Tabular array
      • i:22 sympathise how the electronic configuration of a main group element is related to its position in the Periodic Tabular array
      • 1:23 Understand why elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have like chemical properties
      • 1:24 understand why the noble gases (Group 0) exercise not readily react
    • (due east) Chemical formulae, equations and calculations
      • 1:25 write word equations and balanced chemical equations (including state symbols): for reactions studied in this specification and for unfamiliar reactions where suitable data is provided
      • 1:26 calculate relative formula masses (including relative molecular masses) (Mᵣ) from relative atomic masses (Aᵣ)
      • one:27 know that the mole (mol) is the unit of measurement for the amount of a substance
      • 1:28 understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) and relative formula mass (Mᵣ)
      • 1:29 summate reacting masses using experimental information and chemical equations
      • 1:thirty calculate percentage yield
      • 1:31 sympathise how the formulae of uncomplicated compounds can be obtained experimentally, including metallic oxides, h2o and salts containing h2o of crystallisation
      • one:32 know what is meant by the terms empirical formula and molecular formula
      • 1:33 summate empirical and molecular formulae from experimental data
      • one:34 (Triple only) understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, volume and concentration (in mol/dm³) of solution
      • 1:35 (Triple just) understand how to carry out calculations involving gas volumes and the molar volume of a gas (24dm³ and 24,000cm³ at room temperature and pressure (rtp))
      • 1:36 practical: know how to determine the formula of a metallic oxide by combustion (e.g. magnesium oxide) or past reduction (e.g. copper(II) oxide)
    • (f) Ionic bonding
      • 1:37 understand how ions are formed by electron loss or gain
      • 1:38 know the charges of these ions: metals in Groups 1, 2 and iii, non-metals in Groups five, vi and seven, Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺, hydrogen (H⁺), hydroxide (OH⁻), ammonium (NH₄⁺), carbonate (CO₃²⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻), sulfate (SO₄²⁻)
      • 1:39 write formulae for compounds formed between the ions listed in 1:38
      • one:40 draw dot-and-cross diagrams to testify the formation of ionic compounds by electron transfer, limited to combinations of elements from Groups 1, 2, 3 and 5, half dozen, 7 only outer electrons need be shown
      • 1:41 understand ionic bonding in terms of electrostatic attractions
      • 1:42 understand why compounds with giant ionic lattices have loftier melting and boiling points
      • 1:43 Know that ionic compounds do non conduct electricity when solid, just do behave electricity when molten and in aqueous solution
    • (g) Covalent bonding
      • 1:44 know that a covalent bond is formed between atoms by the sharing of a pair of electrons
      • 1:45 understand covalent bonds in terms of electrostatic attractions
      • 1:46 understand how to utilise dot-and-cross diagrams to represent covalent bonds in: diatomic molecules, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, halogens and hydrogen halides, inorganic molecules including water, ammonia and carbon dioxide, organic molecules containing up to 2 carbon atoms, including methane, ethane, ethene and those containing halogen atoms
      • 1:47 explain why substances with a simple molecular structures are gases or liquids, or solids with low melting and humid points. The term intermolecular forces of attraction can exist used to represent all forces betwixt molecules
      • 1:48 explain why the melting and boiling points of substances with unproblematic molecular structures increase, in general, with increasing relative molecular mass
      • 1:49 explain why substances with giant covalent structures are solids with high melting and boiling points
      • 1:l explain how the structures of diamond, graphite and C₆₀ fullerene influence their physical properties, including electric electrical conductivity and hardness
      • i:51 know that covalent compounds do not commonly conduct electricity
    • (h) Metal bonding
      • 1:52 (Triple only) know how to represent a metal lattice by a 2-D diagram
      • ane:53 (Triple only) understand metal bonding in terms of electrostatic attractions
      • ane:54 (Triple just) explain typical physical backdrop of metals, including electric electrical conductivity and malleability
    • (i) Electrolysis
      • 1:55 (Triple only) understand why covalent compounds do not conduct electricity
      • 1:56 (Triple but) sympathize why ionic compounds deport electricity only when molten or in aqueous solution
      • one:57 (Triple but) know that anion and cation are terms used to refer to negative and positive ions respectively
      • 1:58 (Triple only) describe experiments to investigate electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of molten compounds (including pb(II) bromide) and aqueous solutions (including sodium chloride, dilute sulfuric acid and copper(II) sulfate) and to predict the products
      • one:59 (Triple merely) write ionic half-equations representing the reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis and understand why these reactions are classified as oxidation or reduction
      • i:lx (Triple just) practical: investigate the electrolysis of aqueous solutions
  • two Inorganic chemical science
    • (a) Grouping 1 (alkali metals) – lithium, sodium and potassium
      • 2:01 understand how the similarities in the reactions of lithium, sodium and potassium with water provide testify for their recognition equally a family of elements
      • 2:02 understand how the differences betwixt the reactions of lithium, sodium and potassium with air and water provide testify for the trend in reactivity in Group 1
      • 2:03 use noesis of trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other brine metals
      • 2:04 (Triple only) explicate the trend in reactivity in Group 1 in terms of electronic configurations
    • (b) Grouping seven (halogens) – chlorine, bromine and iodine
      • 2:05 know the colours, physical states (at room temperature) and trends in physical properties of chlorine, bromine and iodine
      • 2:06 utilise noesis of trends in Group vii to predict the backdrop of other halogens
      • 2:07 sympathize how displacement reactions involving halogens and halides provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 7
      • two:08 (Triple only) explain the trend in reactivity in Group 7 in terms of electronic configurations
    • (c) Gases in the atmosphere
      • two:09 know the approximate percentages past volume of the four well-nigh abundant gases in dry out air
      • 2:ten understand how to determine the pct by book of oxygen in air using experiments involving the reactions of metals (due east.1000. iron) and non-metals (e.1000. phosphorus) with air
      • 2:11 depict the combustion of elements in oxygen, including magnesium, hydrogen and sulfur
      • 2:12 describe the germination of carbon dioxide from the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates, including copper(II) carbonate
      • 2:13 know that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that increasing amounts in the temper may contribute to climate change
      • 2:14 Practical: decide the approximate percentage past book of oxygen in air using a metal or a non-metal
    • (d) Reactivity series
      • 2:15 understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their reactions with: water and dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid
      • two:sixteen understand how metals tin be bundled in a reactivity series based on their displacement reactions between: metals and metallic oxides, metals and aqueous solutions of metal salts
      • 2:17 know the social club of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, fe, copper, silver, gold
      • two:18 know the weather nether which iron rusts
      • two:19 understand how the rusting of iron may be prevented past: barrier methods, galvanising and sacrificial protection
      • two:20 in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons, understand the terms: oxidation, reduction, redox, oxidising amanuensis, reducing agent, in terms of proceeds or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons
      • ii:21 applied: investigate reactions betwixt dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids and metals (e.grand. magnesium, zinc and iron)
    • (due east) Extraction and uses of metals
      • 2:22 (Triple only) know that almost metals are extracted from ores found in the Earth'southward crust and that unreactive metals are often found as the uncombined element
      • 2:23 (Triple only) explain how the method of extraction of a metal is related to its position in the reactivity serial, illustrated by carbon extraction for atomic number 26 and electrolysis for aluminium
      • 2:24 (Triple only) be able to comment on a metal extraction process, given advisable data
      • 2:25 (Triple simply) explain the uses of aluminium, copper, iron and steel in terms of their properties the types of steel will be limited to depression-carbon (mild), high-carbon and stainless
      • two:26 (Triple only) know that an alloy is a mixture of a metal and 1 or more than elements, commonly other metals or carbon
      • ii:27 (Triple only) explicate why alloys are harder than pure metals
    • (f) Acids, alkalis and titrations
      • 2:28 describe the utilize of litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange to distinguish betwixt acidic and alkaline solutions
      • 2:29 sympathize how to apply the pH scale, from 0–14, can exist used to allocate solutions as strongly acidic (0–3), weakly acidic (4–half dozen), neutral (7), weakly alkali metal (8–x) and strongly alkaline (xi–xiv)
      • ii:thirty depict the use of Universal Indicator to measure the approximate pH value of an aqueous solution
      • ii:31 know that acids in aqueous solution are a source of hydrogen ions and alkalis in a aqueous solution are a source of hydroxide ions
      • 2:32 know that bases can neutralise acids
      • 2:33 (Triple merely) describe how to acquit out an acid-alkali titration
    • (g) Acids, bases and salt preparations
      • 2:34 know the general rules for predicting the solubility of ionic compounds in water: mutual sodium, potassium and ammonium compounds are soluble, all nitrates are soluble, common chlorides are soluble, except those of silver and lead(II), mutual sulfates are soluble, except for those of barium, calcium and lead(Ii), common carbonates are insoluble, except for those of sodium, potassium and ammonium, common hydroxides are insoluble except for those of sodium, potassium and calcium (calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble)
      • 2:35 understand acids and bases in terms of proton transfer
      • 2:36 understand that an acid is a proton donor and a base of operations is a proton acceptor
      • 2:37 describe the reactions of hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric acid with metals, bases and metal carbonates (excluding the reactions between nitric acid and metals) to grade salts
      • two:38 know that metal oxides, metal hydroxides and ammonia tin can act as bases, and that alkalis are bases that are soluble in water
      • ii:39 describe an experiment to prepare a pure, dry sample of a soluble table salt, starting from an insoluble reactant
      • two:40 (Triple merely) describe an experiment to prepare a pure, dry out sample of a soluble salt, starting from an acrid and alkali
      • 2:41 (Triple only) depict an experiment to prepare a pure, dry sample of an insoluble salt, starting from ii soluble reactants
      • 2:42 applied: prepare a sample of pure, dry hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals starting from copper(II) oxide
      • 2:43 (Triple just) practical: gear up a sample of pure, dry atomic number 82(2) sulfate
    • (h) Chemical tests
      • 2:44a depict tests for these gases: hydrogen, carbon dioxide
      • 2:44 draw tests for these gases: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, chlorine
      • 2:45 describe how to carry out a flame exam
      • ii:46 know the colours formed in flame tests for these cations: Li⁺ is red, Na⁺ is yellow, K⁺ is lilac, Ca²⁺ is orange-red, Cu²⁺ is blue-light-green
      • 2:47 describe tests for these cations: NH₄⁺ using sodium hydroxide solution and identifying the gas evolved, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺ using sodium hydroxide solution
      • two:48 draw tests for these anions: Cl⁻, Br⁻ and I⁻ using acidified silver nitrate solution, And then₄²⁻ using acidified barium chloride solution, CO₃²⁻ using hydrochloric acid and identifying the gas evolved
      • 2:49 describe a test for the presence of water using anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
      • ii:fifty depict a physical test to testify whether a sample of water is pure
  • 3 Concrete chemistry
    • (a) Energetics
      • 3:01 know that chemical reactions in which estrus energy is given out are described as exothermic, and those in which heat energy is taken in are described as endothermic
      • 3:02 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such every bit combustion, displacement, dissolving and neutralisation
      • iii:03 calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
      • 3:04 calculate the tooth enthalpy change (ΔH) from the estrus free energy change, Q
      • 3:05 (Triple only) describe and explain energy level diagrams to represent exothermic and endothermic reactions
      • 3:06 (Triple but) know that bond-breaking is an endothermic process and that bond-making is an exothermic process
      • three:07 (Triple but) use bond energies to calculate the enthalpy change during a chemical reaction
      • 3:08 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: salts dissolving in water, neutralisation reactions, displacement reactions and combustion reactions
    • (b) Rates of reaction
      • 3:09 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature and the use of a goad on the charge per unit of a reaction
      • three:10 describe the furnishings of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, pressure of a gas, temperature and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
      • three:11 explicate the furnishings of changes in surface expanse of a solid, concentration of a solution, pressure of a gas and temperature on the rate of a reaction in terms of particle collision theory
      • 3:12 know that a catalyst is a substance that increases the charge per unit of a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction
      • 3:13 know that a goad works by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy
      • iii:14 (Triple simply) describe and explain reaction profile diagrams showing ΔH and activation energy
      • iii:15 practical: investigate the consequence of changing the surface area of marble chips and of changing the concentration of hydrochloric acid on the rate of reaction betwixt marble chips and dilute hydrochloric acid
      • three:16 applied: investigate the consequence of different solids on the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution
    • (c) Reversible reactions and equilibria
      • three:17 know that some reactions are reversible and this is indicated by the symbol ⇌ in equations
      • 3:18 depict reversible reactions such as the dehydration of hydrated copper(Two) sulfate and the effect of estrus on ammonium chloride
      • iii:19 (Triple only) know that a reversible reaction can reach dynamic equilibrium in a sealed container
      • 3:xx (Triple only) know that the characteristics of a reaction at dynamic equilibrium are: the forward and contrary reactions occur at the aforementioned rate, and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant
      • 3:21 (Triple but) empathise why a goad does not affect the position of equilibrium in a reversible reaction
      • iii:22 (Triple but) predict, with reasons, the effect of changing either pressure or temperature on the position of equilibrium in a reversible reaction (references to Le Chatelier's principle are not required)
  • 4 Organic chemistry
    • (a) Introduction
      • 4:01 know that a hydrocarbon is a compound of hydrogen and carbon only
      • four:02 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, full general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
      • 4:03a know what is meant by the term isomerism
      • four:03 know what is meant by the terms homologous series, functional grouping and isomerism
      • iv:04 understand how to proper noun compounds relevant to this specification using the rules of International Union of Pure and Applied Chemical science (IUPAC) classification. Students will be expected to name compounds containing up to vi carbon atoms
      • 4:05 empathise how to write the possible structural and displayed formulae of an organic molecule given its molecular formula
      • four:06 empathize how to classify reactions of organic compounds as exchange, add-on and combustion. Knowledge of reaction mechanisms is not required
    • (b) Crude oil
      • 4:07 know that crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons
      • 4:08 describe how the industrial procedure of partial distillation separates crude oil into fractions
      • 4:09 know the names and uses of the main fractions obtained from crude oil: refinery gases, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil and bitumen
      • iv:ten know the tendency in colour, boiling point and viscosity of the main fractions
      • four:11 know that a fuel is a substance that, when burned, releases heat energy
      • 4:12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
      • 4:xiii understand why carbon monoxide is poisonous, in terms of its effect on the capacity of blood to transport oxygen references to haemoglobin are not required
      • 4:14 know that, in car engines, the temperature reached is loftier enough to allow nitrogen and oxygen from air to react, forming oxides of nitrogen
      • iv:15 explain how the combustion of some impurities in hydrocarbon fuels results in the germination of sulfur dioxide
      • 4:16 sympathize how sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen oxides contribute to acid rain
      • four:17 describe how long-chain alkanes are converted to alkenes and shorter-chain alkanes by catalytic great (using silica or alumina as the goad and a temperature in the range of 600–700⁰C)
      • four:18 explicate why cracking is necessary, in terms of the balance between supply and demand for dissimilar fractions
    • (c) Alkanes
      • 4:19 know the full general formula for alkanes
      • 4:twenty explain why alkanes are classified as saturated hydrocarbons
      • 4:21 understand how to draw the structural and displayed formulae for alkanes with up to five carbon atoms in the molecule, and to name the unbranched-chain isomers
      • four:22 depict the reactions of alkanes with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet radiations, limited to mono-commutation knowledge of reaction mechanisms is not required
    • (d) Alkenes
      • four:23 know that alkenes contain the functional group >C=C<
      • iv:24 know the full general formula for alkenes
      • 4:25 explain why alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons
      • iv:26 empathise how to depict the structural and displayed formulae for alkenes with up to iv carbon atoms in the molecule, and name the unbranched-chain isomers. Knowledge of cis/trans or E/Z notation is not required
      • 4:27 describe the reactions of alkenes with bromine, to produce dibromoalkanes
      • 4:28 draw how bromine water can be used to distinguish betwixt an paraffin and an alkene
    • (east) Alcohols
      • iv:29 (Triple but) know that alcohols contain the functional grouping −OH
      • iv:30 (Triple simply) empathize how to draw structural and displayed formulae for methanol, ethanol, propanol (propan-1-ol only) and butanol (butan-1-ol only), and proper name each compound, the names propanol and butanol are acceptable
      • 4:31 (Triple but) know that ethanol tin exist oxidised by: burning in air or oxygen (complete combustion), reaction with oxygen in the air to form ethanoic acid (microbial oxidation), heating with potassium dichromate(Six) in dilute sulfuric acrid to class ethanoic acid
      • iv:32 (Triple only) know that ethanol tin can be manufactured by: 1) reacting ethene with steam in the presence of a phosphoric acid goad at a temperature of most 300⁰C and a pressure level of almost 60–70atm; and 2) the fermentation of glucose, in the absence of air, at an optimum temperature of about 30⁰C and using the enzymes in yeast
      • 4:33 (Triple only) understand the reasons for fermentation, in the absence of air, and at an optimum temperature
    • (f) Carboxylic acids
      • four:34 (Triple only) know that carboxylic acids contain the functional group -COOH
      • four:35 (Triple only) understand how to draw structural and displayed formulae for unbranched- chain carboxylic acids with up to four carbon atoms in the molecule, and name each compound
      • 4:36 (Triple only) depict the reactions of aqueous solutions of carboxylic acids with metals and metal carbonates
      • iv:37 (Triple only) know that vinegar is an aqueous solution containing ethanoic acrid
    • (g) Esters
      • four:38 (Triple only) know that esters contain the functional group -COO-
      • iv:39 (Triple only) know that ethyl ethanoate is the ester produced when ethanol and ethanoic acrid react in the presence of an acrid catalyst
      • 4:forty (Triple only) empathize how to write the structural and displayed formulae of ethyl ethanoate
      • four:41 (Triple only) understand how to write the structural and displayed formulae of an ester, given the proper name or formula of the booze and carboxylic acid from which information technology is formed and vice versa
      • 4:42 (Triple only) know that esters are volatile compounds with distinctive smells and are used as food flavourings and in perfumes
      • 4:43 (Triple just) practical: prepare a sample of an ester such as ethyl ethanoate
    • (h) Synthetic polymers
      • 4:44 know that an addition polymer is formed by joining up many pocket-sized molecules called monomers
      • 4:45 understand how to describe the repeat unit of an add-on polymer, including poly(ethene), poly(propene), poly(chloroethene) and (poly)tetrafluroethene
      • four:46 understand how to deduce the structure of a monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer and vice versa
      • 4:47 explicate problems in the disposal of addition polymers, including: their inertness and inability to biodegrade, the product of toxic gases when they are burned
      • four:48 (Triple only) know that condensation polymerisation, in which a dicarboxylic acid reacts with a diol, produces a polyester and water
      • 4:49 (Triple but) Understand how to write the structural and displayed formula of a polyester, showing the echo unit, given the formulae of the monomers from which it is formed, including the reaction of ethanedioic acid and ethanediol:
      • 4:50 (Triple only) know that some polyesters, known as biopolyesters, are biodegradable
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1:23 Understand why elements in the same group of the Periodic Tabular array have similar chemical properties

ane:23 Understand why elements in the same group of the Periodic Table take similar chemic backdrop

Elements in the aforementioned grouping of the periodic table have the same number of electrons in their outer shells, which ways they have similar chemic properties.

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